doi: 10.1007/s00284-015-0825-7, Yarden, O. 1B), the anamorphs (Fig. Among the enzymes involved in lignin degradation, P. cinnabarinus is known to produce a high-redox-potential laccase of the AA1 family up to 1 g per liter (Levasseur et al., 2014). Food Chem. Marine fungi: their ecology and molecular diversity. It is likely that most of the true marine fungi have not yet been discovered. Many of the fungal isolates associated with the seagrass belonged to Ascomycota and were able to produce tannases. Approximately 21, 19, and 16% of new bioactive metabolites obtained from the marine fungi come from those associated with algae, sponges, and mangrove habitats, respectively (Rateb and Ebel, 2011). Mol. Thomas, L., Joseph, A., Singhania, R. R., Patel, A. K., and Pandey, A. Faten, A. M., and Abeer, A. 576, 310–318. However, the sequence similarity-based approach continues to reveal the fungal taxonomic classification that should adequately reflect their ecology and chemical potential (Reich and Labes, 2017). Protoplasma 997–1016. Transcriptome and exoproteome analysis of utilization of plant-derived biomass by Myceliophthora thermophila. doi: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2010.12.007, Keywords: filamentous fungi, marine-derived fungi, glycoside hydrolases, algae polysaccharides, plant polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, lignocellulolytic enzymes, Citation: Balabanova L, Slepchenko L, Son O and Tekutyeva L (2018) Biotechnology Potential of Marine Fungi Degrading Plant and Algae Polymeric Substrates. Indian J. Mar. The enzymes distinguishing by structures and consequently by the substrate specificities could be involved in the transformation of fucoidans with unknown diverse structures. (2016). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049679, Collén, P. N., Jeudy, A., Sassi, J. F., Groisillier, A., Czjzek, M., Coutinho, P. M., et al. Much of said research was conducted from 1980-2000; this 30 year period saw the report of nearly half of the marine fungal species currently known … 1964]. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.057, Rodriguez-Jasso, R. M., Mussatto, S. I., Pastrana, L., Aguilar, C. N., and Teixeira, J. Discussion Fungi growing in the sea can be grouped into obligate and facultative marine fungi. isolated from an obligate marine fungus, the compound had been previously isolated from a terrestrial species (Kupka et al., 1981). Obligate marine fungi are those that grow and create spores exclusively in a marine or estuarine habitat, either permanently or intermittently submerged; these fungi would not survive in fresh water or on land. Receive both the printed Magazine mailed to you monthly as well as access to all our... READ MORE, Over the years, Texas Saltwater Fishing Magazine has been the source of some of the most valuable advice, articles, tips and reviews related to fishing the Gulf Coast... READ MORE, Our user's privacy is important to us at TSF Magazine. Screening and production of ligninolytic enzyme by a marine-derived fungal Pestalotiopsis sp. 5, 349–359. Chem. Several CAZymes from the families GH11, -82, and GH50, -86, -117, -118 found in bacteria are known to contain activities related to carrageenase and agarase, respectively (Figure 1 and Supplementary Table 2b). These fungi are now often included in screens for novel metabolites, while less attention has been given to their production of hydrolytic enzymes. (2015). The oxidation tests with the use of DCPIP allowed selecting the fungi degrading three main fractions of oil in the Reconcavo and Campos Basins: saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic, and non-hydrocarbon compounds (Lima et al., 2017). When high tide comes, some fungal spores colonize the damaged parts of the plants, and these are what the snail eats – it cultivates a fungus farm on the Spartina. Thirunavukkarasu, N., Jahnes, B., Broadstock, A., Rajulu, M. B. G., Murali, T. S., Gopalan, V., et al. Food Sci. Many of these belong to the straminipilan fungi and are widespread in the sea. Xylan degrading enzymes from fungal sources. These structural variations led to the differences in the antibody binding of pectic epitopes in algae and higher plants. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.132, Kumar, A., Henrissat, B., Arvas, M., Syed, M. F., Thieme, N., Benz, J. P., et al. Chem. (2013). In fact, in oil-polluted sediments, fungi are likely the primary degraders of high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons. Mangroves are considered as major 1B), the anamorphs (Fig. Although the strain S. brevicaulis LF580 was isolated from the inner tissue of the marine sponge, it was fully equipped with putative enzymes involved in cellulose degradation similarly to other ascomycetes able to modify or deconstruct plant material (Supplementary Tables 1, 2). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140398, Kusaykin, M. I., Silchenko, A. S., Zakharenko, A. M., and Zvyagintseva, T. N. (2016). 35, 197–202. Definition noun, plural: obligate aerobes An aerobe that requires oxygen for aerobic respiration. New ulvan-degrading polysaccharide lyase family: structure and catalytic mechanism suggests convergent evolution of active site architecture. Alginates and fucoidans of brown macroalgae were also required additional enzymatic treatment and saccharification during their conversion into biofuels (Kim, 2011; Abdallah et al., 2016; Trincone, 2018). Nat. doi: 10.1111/mmi.12459, Berlemont, R. (2017). (2014). Moreover, there is abundant evidence for multiple recolonizations of the ocean by fungi (Spatafora et al., 1998; Richards et al., 2012). (2013). The salt concentration up to 0.4 M NaCl slightly decreased their production, suggesting that although it had been isolated from a halophytic environment, it was not an obligate fungus (Niturea et al., 2008). 29, 719–739. doi: 10.1007/s12010-013-0551-1, Deniaud-Bouet, E., Hardouin, K., Potin, P., Kloareg, B., and Herve, C. (2017). Front. Biotechnol. Mycologia 105, 1412–1427. 44, 2424–2430. nov., a polysaccharide-degrading marine bacterium isolated from the red alga Ahnfeltia tobuchiensis. Biol. Both fungi appeared to be appropriately labeled “marine,” judging by criteria currently in general use. FIGURE 1. doi: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00126, van Bueren, A. L., Morland, C., Gilbert, H. J., and Boraston, A. doi: 10.1007/s00248-015-0640-5, Wang, Y., Barth, D., Tamminen, A., and Wiebe, M. G. (2016). The family 11 carbohydrate-binding module of Clostridium thermocellum Lic26A-Cel5E accommodates beta-1,4- and beta-1,3-1,4-mixed linked glucans at a single binding site. Drugs 9, 196–233. J. Sci. Morgenstern, I., Powlowski, J., and Tsang, A. doi: 10.5772/46094, Otero, I. V. R., Ferro, M., Bacci, M., Ferreira, H., and Sette, L. D. (2017). tain obligate marine fungi, terrestrial fungi and those that can survive, or at least tolerate both environments to some degree. 30, 685–694. Microbiol. While most can’t fully mineralize hydrocarbons on their own, they work cooperatively with oil-degrading bacteria – fungi break down the tough carbons; bacteria decompose the resulting simpler carbons. doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00035-14, Sathya, R., and Ushadevy, T. (2013). Microbiol. Proc. Arfi, Y., Chevret, D., Henrissat, B., Berrin, J. G., Levasseur, A., and Record, E. (2013). Cham: Springer, 115–141. Considering the importance of cellulases with the alkaline pH-optimums in craft pulping industries, screening of the marine-derived endophytes and wood litter fungi has been carried out in the mangrove ecosystem of the Goa coast using agro-wastes (Ravindran et al., 2010). Res. doi: 10.15376/biores.10.4.8450-8460, Levasseur, A., Drula, E., Lombard, V., Coutinho, P. M., and Henrissat, B. Analyses of the RNA-Seq data under the cultivation of Arthrinium malaysianum with the repressor of glucose uptake 2-deoxy D-glucose (2-DG) revealed that 2691 transcripts were differentially expressed vs. control samples, and 302 CAZyme genes was up-regulated in response to 2-DG (Mukherjee et al., 2016). Laccase a multicopper oxidase (benzenediol:oxygen oxidoreductases, EC 1.10.3.2) reduces oxygen to water and simultaneously carries out one-electron oxidation of aromatic, mainly phenolic compounds because of their low redox potentials from 0.5 to 1.0 V to allow for electron abstraction by the Cu1 (Giardina et al., 2010; Desai and Nityanand, 2011). Fungal association with sessile marine invertebrates. CBMAI 1063, and Tinctoporellus sp. Copyright © 2017 Texas Saltwater Fishing Magazine. A. E. A. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 g… What information do we collect? An extracellular S1-type nuclease of marine fungus Penicillium melinii. doi: 10.1093/glycob/cwv072, Le Calvez, T., Burgaud, G., Mahe, S., Barbier, G., and Vandenkoornhuyse, P. (2009). (2015). Microbiol. Basidiomycota is the other phylum of Dikarya. (2015). 17:E1360. NCi6 capable of utilizing complex lignocellulosic substrates in the presence of high concentrations of salt was distinguished by lignocellulolytic profiles of the secretomes in non-saline and saline conditions (Arfi et al., 2013) (Supplementary Table 2). “Algal polysaccharides, novel applications and outlook,” in Carbohydrates - Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology, ed. (2017). J. Proteomics Enzymol. Fungi have been found in nearly every marine habitat examined: mud, sand, corals, the water column, mangrove swamps, estuarine grasses, even nestled in the gut of crustaceans – ranging in location from deep sea sediments all the way to surface waters. Mangrove-associated fungi have been divided into two groups: those that are submerged at high tide and those that are not. A recognized model system for the study of the enzyme machinery involved in the complete degradation of lignocellulosic material is the white-rot fungus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, whose genome contains a versatile ligninocellulolytic enzymatic spectrum (Levasseur et al., 2014). Fungi function as parasites at many trophic levels. doi: 10.4137/EBO.S37532, Lima, D. F., Cordeiro de Oliveira, O. M., dos Santos Geris, R. M., Trigüis, J. BMC Biotechnol. Surface sterilization and plating as well as particle plating are useful methods to culture obligate and facultative marine fungi. CBMAI 1330. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 608. doi: 10.1002/9781119977087, Kirikyali, N., and Connerton, I. F. (2015). Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Glycosidases of marine organisms. Acad. Purification and characterization of extracellular, polyextremophilic α-amylase obtained from halophilic Engyodontium album. Carbohydrate-binding domains: multiplicity of biological roles. Phylogenetic analysis of pectin degrading yeasts from deep-sea environments. However, there are enzymes with unique structures and specificities related to the substrates of marine origin such as the recently determined fucoidanases of the GH107 family, α-agarases of the GH117 family, or ulvan lyases of PL24 and PL25 families predominantly occurred in marine bacteria (Supplementary Table 2b and Figure 1). AMB Express 6:25. doi: 10.1186/s13568-016-0194-z, Druzhinina, I. S., and Kubicek, C. P. (2017). Most mycologists, never mind the general public, don’t know much about the group. 2012). doi: 10.1016/S1004-9541(13)60567-4, Floudas, D., Binder, M., Riley, R., Barry, K., Blanchette, R. A., Henrissat, B., et al. They contain carbohydrates that are feature of plants (cellulose), animals (fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides) and bacteria (alginates) (Keeling et al., 2009; Deniaud-Bouet et al., 2017). doi: 10.1007/s00253-009-2331-y, Harms, H., Schlosser, D., and Wick, L. Y. Rep. 7:222. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-00258-w. Bidoia, E. D., Montagnolli, R. N., and Lopes, P. R. M. (2010). A., Bonugli-antos, R. C., Miqueletto, P. B., Passarini, M. R. Z., Silva, C. H. D., Justo, M. R., et al. They are potential producers of protein-rich digestible biomass from plant and macroalgae, biotechnology relevant enzymes as well as are new source of drugs and biotechnological discoveries. doi: 10.1002/jobm.201100461, Dos Santos, J. Asian J. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-54304-8, Raghukumar, C., Muraleedharan, U., Gaud, V. R., and Mishra, R. (2004a). doi: 10.1007/s10295-004-0165-2, Raimundo, S. C., Pattathil, S., Eberhard, S., Hahn, M. G., and Popper, Z. Phycol. Supplement Obligate aerobes need oxygen to oxidize substrates (for example sugars and fats) in order to obtain energy. However, many of them need to be enzymatically pretreated before their use (Synytsya et al., 2015; Abdallah et al., 2016; Trincone, 2018). Cellulase-producing marine fungi among 181 samples isolated from the continental slope sediments of the Arabian Sea belonged mainly to genera Cephalosporium (36.5%), Pleospora (22.5%), Humicola (20.5%), and Penicillium (18.55%) (Smitha et al., 2014). What cool chemical compounds are they hiding? J. Ind. 109, 112–120. Lignin-degrading marine fungi have been mostly identified in mangroves and seagrasses (Raghukumar, 2008; Arfi et al., 2013; Panno et al., 2013; Sette and Santos, 2013; Bonugli-Santos et al., 2015). doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63662-1.00006-3, Trincone, A. Science 336, 1715–1719. Fungal cellulases from mangrove forests – a short review. After the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, we heard a lot about oil-eating bacteria. Fungal Genet. Open J. Yangtze Gas Oil 2, 10–26. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.109, Bovio, E., Gnavi, G., Prigione, V., Spina, F., Denaro, R., Yakimov, M., et al. mycologists considered too restrictive. Nearly 530 species of marine fungi reported from India included in 321 genera. BMC Genomics 15:6. doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-6, Zhu, Y., Chen, P., Bao, Y., Men, Y., Zeng, Y., Yang, J., et al. Exoglucanases processively hydrolyze cellulose chains at the ends up to soluble cellobiose or glucose, and then β-glucosidases cleave cellobiose to glucose, eliminating cellobiose-dependent inhibition. FEMS Microbiol. Fungal diversity in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems. (2011). Facultative marine strains related to the plant cell wall degradation are more likely to be cellulolytic (Supplementary Table 1). Microbial diversity associated with algae, ascidians and sponges from the north coast of São Paulo state, Brazil. Pigment and amylase production in Penicillium sp. The majority of 18 marine-derived ascomycetes and zygomycetes also showed the EG and BGL activities independently on salinity (Lee et al., 2015). doi: 10.1074/jbc.M113.537480, Cong, B., Wang, N., Liu, S., Liu, F., Yin, X., and Shen, J. Although the Pestalotiopsis sp. Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals. De novo assembly and genome analyses of the marine-derived Scopulariopsis brevicaulis strain LF580 unravels life-style traits and anticancerous scopularide biosynthetic gene cluster. Oxidative enzymes are in 12 AA families, of which 8 AAs act during lignin degradation and 4 AAs act on polysaccharides (LPMOs) with an endo-type mechanism of action in crystalline regions of the chains (Payne et al., 2015). 67, 369–385. Sci. Distribution and diversity of enzymes for polysaccharide degradation in fungi. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Fungi have been found to produce a wide range of CAZymes and degrade plant complex polymers into digestible and assimilable products for other members of ecosystems. This intertidal snail lives in the marshy area that gets flooded at high tide; this snail purposely damages Spartina plants that grow there. How to boost marine fungal research: a first step towards a multidisciplinary approach by combining molecular fungal ecology and natural products chemistry. Natl. Technol. Thus, algal polysaccharides are more diverse that require additional catalytic mechanisms or metabolic pathways to their fermentation (Vera et al., 2011; Abdallah et al., 2016; Garcia-Vaquero et al., 2017; Trincone, 2018). Full text Get a printable copy (PDF file) of the complete article (1.3M), or click on a page image below to browse page by page. Moreover, the marine fungi gave a display many additional genes encoding putative CAZymes and their concomitant proteins as compared to the known terrestrial plant-degrading counterparts (Aro et al., 2005; Arfi et al., 2013; Hori et al., 2013; Levasseur et al., 2013; Rytioja et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2015). 12, 1269–1280. and Kohlmeyer (1979), “Obligate marine fungi are those that grow and sporulate exclusively in marine or estuarine habitat. (2016), Calcarisporium sp., Tritirachium sp., Bartalinia robillardoides, Penicillium pinophilum, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, and Pestalotiopsis sp., grew well on cellulose or CMC as the sole carbon source indicating only weak production of cellulases or endoglucanases. 53, 587–594. Durieu and Montagne (1869) discovered the first obligate marine fungus on the rhizomes of the sea grass, Posidonia oceanica. 4, 1385–1387. Discovery of the genes involved in the delignification pathways in marine fungi can help to understand their mechanisms to exploit their potential as efficient biomarkers for bioremediation. 163, 51–62. Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. doi: 10.3390/ijms17081360, Manohar, C. S., and Raghukumar, C. (2013). Production of amylase from marine fungus using spoiled banana fruit as a substrate. (2009). Family 6 CBMs are appropriate receptors for laminarin due to the presence of multiple distinct ligand binding sites (van Bueren et al., 2005). The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Soc. Molecular diversity and distribution of marine fungi across 130 European environmental samples. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M410113200, van den Brink, J., and de Vries, R. P. (2011). What is an obligate marine fungi? The culturable mycobiota of a Mediterranean marine site after an oil spill: isolation, identification and potential application in bioremediation. Appl. 1A) and a few basidio-mycetes. doi: 10.1007/s00248-002-1055-7, Mai, Z., Su, H., and Zhang, S. (2016). 5, 765–774. Drugs 8, 1920–1934. doi: 10.1007/s12010-011-9162-x, Benz, J. P., Chau, B. H., Zheng, D., Bauer, S., Glass, N. L., and Somerville, C. R. (2014). Xylanases of marine fungi of potential use for biobleaching of paper pulp. Drugs 13, 4137–4155. AMB Express. Appl. Mar. Of which 424 Ascomycota (251 genera) 94 Mitosporic fungi (61 genera) and 12 Basidiomycota (9 genera). (2012). doi: 10.3390/md9020196, Jones, E. B. G., Suetrong, S., Sakayaroj, J., Bahkali, A. H., Abdel-Wahab, M. A., Boekhout, T., et al. J. Syst. doi: 10.1007/s12010-011-9392-y, Chen, W., Xie, T., Shao, Y., and Chen, F. (2012). Appl. Marine derived fungi as a source of proteases. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, several cases of seagrass local mycosis were also identified. Production of laccase, manganese peroxidase and lignin peroxidase by Brazilian marine-derived fungi. Ecol. You can find fungi anywhere you look: mud, beach sand, on algae, in corals, detritus in mangrove swamps, estuarine grasses, and even nestled in the gut of crustaceans (Hyde et al. nov., a new marine polysaccharide-degrading bacterium isolated from a Pacific red alga. Sci. What exactly are they doing? The presence of salt modified the lignocellulolytic enzyme composition of the salt-adapted mangrove fungus Pestalotiopsis sp. 37, 326–328. Microbiol. tubingensis LAMAI 31: a new genetic resource for xylanase production. Our data also showed that the East China Sea significantly differed from other regions in terms of species richness and community composition, indicating a profound effect of the huge … Microbiol. The genome sequencing of the psychrotrophic strain Cadophora malorum revealed deficient in cellulase genes, but its putative alginate lyase could be acquired due to the adaptation to marine environment (Rédou et al., 2016). 289, 6199–6211. 71, 442–451. Feng, X., Chen, H., Xue, D., and Yao, S. (2013). While the former are considered as obligate marine fungi, the latter are known as marine-derived fungi. In some macroalgae, where cellulose is absent (Chlorophyceae and Rhodophyta), xylan forms a highly crystalline fiber-like material. Commun. The facultative fungal endophyte Fusarium moniliforme isolated from decaying leaves of mangrove plants in the saline detritus-rich mud of a mangrove estuary on the west coast of India was a highly pectinolytic producer (Niturea et al., 2008). B. Bioinform. Sci. Int. Besides, terrestrial species of fungi adapted to the marine environment (the ‘marine-derived fungi’), are physiologically The Lore & Legend of Texas Saltwater Fishing. NCi6 transcriptome was more enriched in lignin breakdown enzymes, the proteomic and transcriptomic analyses suggested that the adaptation of mangrove fungi to salt expressed in an increase in the number of cellulolytic enzymes, enhancing cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolysis at increasing the salinity up to 3% (Arfi et al., 2013). isolated from marine sediments collected in the east coast of India showed the high levels of amylase activity (220–250 U mg-1), whose biomass was grown by solid state fermentation (SSF) with the use of spoiled banana fruit with starch supplementation at 35–40°C and pH 6.5 (Sathya and Ushadevy, 2013). isolated from an obligate marine fungus, the compound had been previously isolated from a terrestrial species (Kupka et al., 1981). CBMAI 1063 cultivated in saline conditions (Otero et al., 2017). 280, 530–537. In addition, marine fungi can produce enzymes with unique specificity toward the marine polymeric substrates such as laminarins, fucoidans, ulvans, carragenans, and agar (Bonugli-Santos et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016). The cellulase complex of fungal species of genera Trichoderma and Aspergillus are believed to be the most equipped for plant material degradation and therefore their genetic-engineering strains, particularly T. reesei, and the genes encoding highly active cellulases, have been intensively used for the improvement of industrial processes (Payne et al., 2015; Kuhad et al., 2016; Druzhinina and Kubicek, 2017). (2013). An intensely brown spent wash of molasses (MSW) was decolorized by 60–73% by a marine white-rot basidiomycete, Flavodon flavus, immobilized on a polyurethane foam, which could be effectively used for a minimum three cycles (Raghukumar et al., 2004b). According to the chemical composition of the branches, fucoidans can be divided into xylofucoglycuronans and glycuronogalactofucans (Kim, 2011). They also contain xylan, mannan, and cellulose (Table 1). These fungi are now often included in screens for novel metabolites, while less attention has been given to their production of hydrolytic enzymes. Alginates are linear polymers composed by two epimers, β-1,4-D-mannuronate (M) and α-1,4-L-guluronate (G) (Synytsya et al., 2015; Deniaud-Bouet et al., 2017). (2004). Chemical structures and bioactivities of sulfated polysaccharides from marine algae. Front. The comparison of enzyme expression profiles in the dependence on plant or algae polymeric substrates in the growth medium can reveal the nutrition preferences and CAZyme repertoire of the marine fungi. doi: 10.1016/j.nbt.2013.01.010, Passarini, M. R. Z., Ottoni, C. A., Santos, C., Lima, N., and Sette, L. D. (2015). However, their enzymatic profile included about 25–37 U/mg activities of agarase, alginate lyase, carragenase and fucoidanase during the first 4 days of cultivation dropped almost to zero at the following 7 days, probably, due to the growth on the plant substrate (Balabanova et al., 2018). Nat. Biotechnol. Hemicelluloses are distinguished by the main sugar in the backbone chain: xylan (β-1,4-linked D-xylose), mannan (β-1,4-linked D-mannose) and glucomannans (β-1,3;1,4-D-glucans with mannose), or xyloglucan (β-1,4-D-glucan with β-1,6-attached xylose). 3:147. doi: 10.4172/2155-6199.1000147. It is known that the enzymatic breakdown of cellulose in fungi is achieved by GHs from the families 5, 6, 7, 12, and 45 distinguished by the mode of enzymatic action and the substrate specificity: cellulose 1,4-β-cellobiohydrolyses (reducing end) (EC 3.2.1.176; CBH I; GH7); β-1,4-endoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.4; EG; GH 5,6,7,12,45), exo-β-glucanases or cellobiohydrolases (non-reducing end) (EC 3.2.1.91; CBHII; GH 6,7), β-glucosidases (EC 3.2.1.21; BGL; GH 1,3), and the auxiliary enzymes (AA) (Supplementary Table 2). These belong mostly to ascomycetes (Fig. The enzymatic conversion of major algal and cyanobacterial carbohydrates to bioethanol. Some species are obligate parasites, deadly enough that some shrimp and lobsters host symbiotic bacteria that produce anti-fungal compounds to protect the crustacean embryos; any aquarium enthusiast can tell you about fungal infections that rapidly take advantage of wounded fish. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4471-2324-8_2, Vera, J., Castro, J., Gonzalez, A., and Moenne, A. Biochem. 7:596. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00596. Marine fungi are not a taxonomically or physiologically defined group of organisms; rather, they are an ecologically defined group. 183, 197–207. PLoS One 12:e0175941. obligate marine fungi belonging to the Fungi have been reported so far (Hyde et al., 2000). Protoplasma 243, 25–38. The polysaccharide- and polyphenol-degrading enzymes in marine-derived fungi are often more multitudinous and effective than their terrestrial counterparts, indicating the great contribution of marine fungi to the biotransformation processes of algae and plant material in the ocean parts of the Earth. 4, 495–522. Lignin peroxidase (LiP) (E.C:1.11.1.14) and manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP) (EC 1.11.1.13) and laccase (Lac) (EC1.10.3.2) are the other major lignin-degrading enzymes with great potential for industrial applications (Bonugli-Santos et al., 2010, 2015; Panno et al., 2013). It’s an exciting time for sea shrooms! 3, 140–142. Marine Mycology: An Overview of Pathogens, and Secondary Metabolites Introduction and History The golden age of marine mycology occurred from 1960-1990 with the research and discovery of most of the roughly 500 species of obligate marine fungi. doi: 10.1039/c0np00061b, Ravindran, C., Naveenan, T., and Varatharajan, G. (2010). Plant-polysaccharide-degrading enzymes from basidiomycetes. Phylogenomic analyses indicate that early fungi evolved digesting cell walls of algal ancestors of land plants. A large number of obligate marine fungi thrive on mangrove wood, pneumatophores and submerged mangrove leaf litter. Appl. Hemicellulose polymers consist of pentoses (xylose and arabinose), hexoses (mostly mannose), and a number of sugars and acids. The true marine fungi are active in such extreme conditions as the presence of high salt concentrations that trigger or increase the expression of specific enzymes. A biotechnology perspective of fungal proteases. Fungal cellulases. Macroalgae polysaccharides are divided into storage and structural depending on their chemical structure and function (Jiao et al., 2011; Kim, 2011; Ermakova et al., 2015; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Synytsya et al., 2015; Abdallah et al., 2016; Cunha and Grenha, 2016; Deniaud-Bouet et al., 2017; Raimundo et al., 2017). Biol. Surprising spectra of root-associated fungi in submerged aquatic plants. J. Biol. Extremophiles 5, 21–26. J. Pharm. A different polysaccharide structure as well as cell wall properties and functions of the unicellular green algae could explain a reduced activity in its pectin methylesterases (PME) in comparison to the higher plants (Eder and Lütz-Meindl, 2008, 2010). Various forms of xylanases exist in nature, which belong to the GH families 1, 3, 10, 11, 30, 39, 43, 51 with the predominance of GHs 10, 11 and 30 in fungi. The chemical composition and content of seaweed polysaccharides changes depending on the seasons, age, species, and location (Kim, 2011). and Chaetomium sp. The present microbial cellulase production technologies including genetic optimization of the strains have reached an industrial level of research (Ochoa-Villarreal et al., 2012; Rytioja et al., 2014; Payne et al., 2015; Kuhad et al., 2016). Microbiol. Texas' Only 100% Pure Saltwater Fishing Magazine. Evol. Rather, the classical definition of ‘marine’ is based more on the ecology of the organism where marine fungi are classified into obligate and facultative forms: obligate marine fungi are those that grow and sporulate exclusively in a marine or estuarine habitat, and facultative marine fungi are those that also occur in … (2015). J. Appl. 73, 1–72. The genomic or transcriptomic analyses may provide information about the life style and metabolic repertoire of marine fungi. Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1979) which many marine. NCi6 in comparison with the amount of putative algae polysaccharide-degrading enzymes (Supplementary Table 2). Classification of marine Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota. A thermostable metal-tolerant laccase with bioremediation potential from a marine-derived fungus. Chem. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.11.016, Giardina, P., Faraco, V., Pezzella, C., Piscitelli, A., Vanhulle, S., and Sannia, G. (2010). KF079 at a similar rate as glucose demonstrated the efficiency with which their amylases and glucanases were expressed (Wang et al., 2016) (Supplementary Table 1). Marine fungal biotechnology: an ecological perspective. In an assessment of coastal sediments in the Gulf of Mexico, both before and after the Deepwater Horizon spill, fungi were found to dominate benthic communities impacted by oil, and those communities include species known to “eat oil” (technically they just degrade it; they don’t eat it). Substrate recognition and hydrolysis by a family 50 exo-β-agarase, Aga50D, from the marine bacterium Saccharophagus degradans. One challenge hindering the field of marine mycology (the study of fungi) is defining which fungi are truly ‘marine.’ Many species collected from marine environments are already well-known from terrestrial habitats. marine fungi are aquatic and terrestrial microorganisms that are able to grow in marine environments.10 Until 1991, only 321 species of obligate marine fungi had been described,11 the majority belonging to the class Ascomycete, which are found in shallow waters, frequently associated with marine algae, decomposing wood,7 … Ecol. Aside from decolorization, the fungus removed 68% of the toxicity of MSW containing benzo(a)pyrene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), therefore in the estuarine fish, Oreochromis mossambicus, it was showed no liver damage in contrast to the fish after contact with untreated MSW by the fungus (Raghukumar et al., 2004b). Comparative analysis of fungal genomes reveals different plant cell wall degrading capacity in fungi. doi: 10.1007/s10126-011-9392-5, Barnes, N. M., Khodse, V. B., Lotlikar, N. P., Meena, R. M., and Damare, S. R. (2018). 31, 19–35. Sulfated seaweed polysaccharides as multifunctional materials in drug delivery applications. The fungus Chaetomium indicum associated with Fucus evanescens collected near the Kuril Islands, and Trichoderma aureviride sampled from bottom sediments of South China Sea had similar extracellular laminarinases classified as exo-1,3-β-D-glucan-glucanohydrolases (EC 3.2.1.58): the temperature optimums (40–45°C), molecular masses (54–56 kDa), Km (0.1–0.3 mg mL-1) (Burtseva et al., 2003). In recent years interest in the secondary metabo-lites and bio-active compounds produced by some of these fungi has grown [2, 3] and they are increasingly included in ecological studies of marine environments [1, … Arthrinium phaeospermum and Fusarium equiseti grew with the highest rate in saline conditions, indicating the intrinsic halo-tolerance due to the long-time adaptation to a marine life style (Lee et al., 2015). Pectin-like carbohydrates in the green alga Micrasterias characterized by cytochemical analysis and energy filtering TEM. Front. doi: 10.1515/bot.2010.071, Sova, V. V., Pesentseva, M. S., Zakharenko, A. M., Kovalchuk, S. N., and Zvyagintseva, T. N. (2013). All species are obligate endoparasites of animals, except Nephromyces, a symbiont in marine animals, originally classified as a chytrid fungus. A comparative systems analysis of polysaccharide-elicited responses in Neurospora crassa reveals carbon source-specific cellular adaptations. 6:269. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00269, Bonugli-Santos, R. C., Durrant, L. R., da Silva, M., and Sette, L. D. (2010). BMC Microbiol. Chem. Conserved and essential transcription factors for cellulase gene expression in ascomycete fungi. Biodegrad. Since some seagrasses and macroalgae showed up to 40% xylan (in red/green algae and higher plants) or fuco-glucuronoxylans (in brown algae) of the polysaccharide content, it was suggested the marine bacteria and fungi associated with them could evolve the efficient mechanisms for xylan degradation at the genetic and/or molecular levels (Kraan, 2012; Del-Cid et al., 2014; Dos Santos et al., 2016). Rev. The marine isolates Calcarisporium sp. (2011). 23, 755–762. The high levels of mannanase activity comparable to the cellulase and xylanase activities were determined in all 11 marine fungal strains studied by Arfi et al. The presence of numerous cellulose- and xylan-degrading enzymes of the GH5, GH3, GH16, GH43 families allow considering the strains of Arthrinium spp. 6, 37–53. CBMAI 1601 were isolated from the marine sponges of the north coast of Brazil (Menezes et al., 2010; Otero et al., 2017). J. Microsc. Algae polysaccharide-degrading enzymes were shortened according to the first letters of the enzymatic names. Remarkably, the laccases of the marine strains Nigrospora sp. (2015). (2013). For the efficient bioconversion of plant and algae material, microorganisms or enzymes capable of degrading the indigestible cell wall polysaccharide complexes are the most valuable for biotechnology. |, Enzymes Modifying Macroalgae Polysaccharides, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01527/full#supplementary-material, http://tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3/2009.10.28, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Materials and Methods Collecting methods and coordinates of sites have been published in a … 4:1810. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2850, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Aro, N., Pakula, T., and Penttila, M. (2005). Marine fungi are either completely restricted to oceanic habitats (obligate), or able to grow there as an extension of their normal range (facultative). doi: 10.3390/molecules23040901, Trivedi, N., Reddy, C., Radulovich, R., and Jha, B. 3 Biotech 8:21. doi: 10.1007/s13205-017-1043-8, Beena, P. S., Basheer, S. M., Bhat, S. G., Bahkali, A. H., and Chandrasekaran, M. (2011). The higher xylanase activity was registered at the enzymatic production of reducing-sugar ends from birchwood xylan, oat spelts xylan, and wheat arabinoxylan (Supplementary Table 1). obligate marine fungi, for those growing exclusively in a marine habitat, and facultative marine fungi, for those isolated from the freshwater or terrestrial origin, and also from the marine environment. The ascomycetes Cladosporium cucumerinum MUT 4296, Pleosporales sp. The importance of chytrid fungi in parasitism of marine phytoplankton is increasingly recognized, and fungal parasites are also known from invertebrates, fish, and even top predators such as seals and … (2011). Biotechnol. Enzyme Microb. Bacteria have been suggested to play a more important role in the submerged macroalgae degradation than fungi (Raghukumar, 2017). The surprising absence of cosmopolitan taxa in our study, such as the genus Corollospora or the species Humicola alopallonella , can … Appl. 8:600. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00600, Garcia-Vaquero, M., Rajauria, G., O’Doherty, J. V., and Sweeney, T. (2017). 175, 395–408. doi: 10.1128/AEM.00653-09, Lee, H., Lee, Y. M., Heo, Y. M., Lee, H., Hong, J.-H., Jang, S., et al. Biol. In fungi, three types of amylolytic enzymes are produced: α-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1), glucoamylase (EC 3.2.1.3) and α-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20) belonging to the GH13, GH15 and GH31 families (Chen et al., 2012). In particular, obligate biotrophs and unculturable so-called ‘early diverging lineages’ were just not detected. (2012). J. Res. Remarkably, the addition of higher quantities of corn flour or corn steep liquor (≥30 g L-1) as the substrate repressed the amylase production during SmF. These analyses revealed the presence many post-genomic or post-translational modifications during the lignocellulose degradation process, particularly in the presence of salt (Arfi et al., 2013; Panno et al., 2013; Cong et al., 2017). Bioinformatic characterization of genes encoding cell wall degrading enzymes in the Phytophthora parasitica genome. 30:5859. doi: 10.3402/polar.v30i0.5859, Panno, L., Bruno, M., Voyron, S., Anastasi, A., Gnavi, G., Miserere, L., et al. For example, a species of Fusarium (a large genus of filamentous, and mostly saprophytic, fungi) isolated from a seaweed harbors a chemical that may have anti-cancer effects. The expression of oxidative enzymes was monitored through decoloration of the dyes Remazol Brilliant Blue (RBBR) for laccases and Amaranth Red (AmR) for peroxidases with the redox potential similar to the natural substrates of these enzymes (Desai and Nityanand, 2011; Panno et al., 2013; Bonugli-Santos et al., 2015). doi: 10.3118/jjse.5.21. What is a Non-facultative fungi? (2012). Nedashkovskaya, O. I., Balabanova, L. A., Zhukova, N. V., Kim, S. J., Bakunina, I. Y., and Rhee, S. K. (2014). Growth of marine fungi on polymeric substrates. Diverse metabolic capacities of fungi for bioremediation. The cell walls of marine red algae have a complex texture due to the content of cellulose, xylan, or mannan fibrils and matrix polysaccharides, including the economically important sulfated galactans such as carrageenan and agar used for the bioethanol production (Table 1 and Figure 1). S.-K. Se-Kwon Kim (Berlin: Springer-Verlag), 543–590. Flavobacterium ahnfeltiae sp. Saline-dependent regulation of manganese peroxidase genes in the hypersaline-tolerant white rot fungus Phlebia sp. 172, 524–532. About 3.5–4.6% and 11.5–16.1% of cellulose fiber were chemically determined in non-food macroalgae Ascophyllum nodosum and Sargassum sp., which were used for bioethanol production (Kraan, 2012). associated with Antarctic marine sponges showed the higher xylanolytic activity at low temperatures when grown on beechwood or birchwood xylan and wheat bran, than on wheat straw and oat bran (Del-Cid et al., 2014) (Supplementary Table 1). One of the most important use of these enzymes is in bioremediation to degrade or neutralize pollutants in the environment or to decolorize dyes in industries (Raghukumar, 2008; Sette and Santos, 2013). The expression of two additional isozymes of the lignolytic manganese peroxidases (MnP) in Phlebia sp. Marine fungi are widely distributed microorganisms in the ocean, particularly associated with sediment, seawater, marine habitants, submerged plants, and algae. Carbohydr. The fungal filtrate also showed moderate activities of xylosidase (0.26 U mL-1) and arabinofuranosidase that could act synergistically with xylanase at attacking xylan. The exogenous addition of 2-DG to fungal cells in a growth media caused the glucose starvation-like response. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01527/full#supplementary-material, Abdallah, Q. In addition, the absence of simple methods for quantitative determination of the fucoidanase activity and the use of structurally uncharacterized fucans hamper exploring fucoidanases and finding the new enzymes (Ermakova et al., 2015). J. Bioremediat. PLoS One 10:e0140398. Biotechnol. The editor and reviewers' affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. The unique properties of the enzyme rather related to its structure distinguished from the reported terrestrial analogs (Beena et al., 2011). 165, 466–482. A more detailed discussion about marine fungi and obligate marine species has been presented by Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1979. LB and LS wrote the review. 31, 433–441. One third of the ascomycetes from seawater and sediment sampled in a Mediterranean site continuously contaminated with oil spills was able to grow in the presence of crude oil as the sole carbon source (Bovio et al., 2017). (2009). These belong mostly to ascomycetes (Fig. Some marine fungi even live on terrestrial plants (these would be the facultative type). However, the question of what the marine fungi contributes to the plant and algae material biotransformation processes has yet to be highlighted sufficiently. Many extra- and intracellular enzymes of marine fungi such as GHs, nucleases, proteases, and lipases involved in the degradation of cell walls, DNA, proteins, and other organic matter have been structurally or/and biochemically characterized and showed the higher specific activity and effectiveness in comparison with those from their terrestrial counterparts (Nielsen et al., 2007; Kamat et al., 2008; Beena et al., 2011; Harms et al., 2011; Balabanova et al., 2012; van Leeuwen et al., 2012). tubingensis LAMAI 31 have been found to be effective sources of the highly active salt-inducible xylanases, utilizing xylan as well as agro-industrial residues such as sugar cane bagasse, wheat bran, and rice straw (Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2015; Dos Santos et al., 2016). Res. Energy Rev. The results showed that 16 β-glucosidases of the GH1, and 6 glucan β-1,3-glucosidases of the GH5 family involved in cell wall biogenesis/degradation was significantly up-regulated. Independent terrestrial origins of the Halosphaeriales (marine Ascomycota). grew with carrageenan as the sole carbon source, 10 of which produced the largest mycelial biomass. Fungi are thought to have a relatively high tolerance to hydrocarbons, and more than 100 genera are known to play important roles in biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soils and sediments. The culturable mycobiota of Flabellia petiolata: first survey of marine fungi associated to a Mediterranean green alga. doi: 10.1007/s00018-009-0169-1, Gnavi, G., Garzoli, L., Poli, A., Prigione, V., Burgaud, G., and Varese, G. C. (2017). Microb. Microbiol. A. oryzae and Penicillium sp. J. Biochem. Among 54 strains, Aspergillus sp. Life Sci. (2010). 74, 2709–2716. A., Bolam, D. N., Gilbert, H. J., Pires, V. M., et al. The fungal life cycle and mediating interactions between the fungus and host have led to the evolution of biochemical pathways for the synthesis of unusual secondary metabolites that have found many potential applications in anticancer and antimicrobial studies (Yarden, 2014; Hasan et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016; Deshmukh et al., 2017). A., Nixon, B. T., and Fortwendel, J. R. (2016). Marine Mycology: The Higher Fungi deals with the higher marine fungi, i.e., Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. 3, 5–10. Schematic representation of algae cell wall polysaccharides and corresponding polysaccharide-degrading enzymes. J. Chem. Int. Fungal diversity from various marine habitats deduced through culture-independent studies. Kamei, I., Daikoku, C., Tsutsumi, Y., and Kondo, R. (2008). EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE MOLECULES ISOLATED FROM OBLIGATE MARINE FUNGI doi: 10.1126/science.1221748, Gao, B., Jin, M., Li, L., Qu, W., and Zeng, R. (2017). Fungal collection isolated from a marine sponge, Ircinia variabilis (formerly Psammocinia sp). Microbiol. has the innate ability to produce extracellular lignocellulose-degrading enzymes (Hong et al., 2015; Mukherjee et al., 2016). Historically, marine fungi have been understudied. Ecol. Cell Mol. However, all existing data from the genome sequencing projects concerned to glycoside hydrolases (GHs) and concomitant enzymes [auxiliary activities (AAs), carbohydrate esterases (CEs)] indicate that marine fungi have developed the metabolic pathways rather related to breakdown of terrestrial plants than algae or animal residues (Arfi et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2015). In addition, white-rot fungi have up to 12 members of ligninolytic peroxidases from the AA2 family, distinguishing them from brown-rot fungi, which contain no AA2 members (Floudas et al., 2012; Hori et al., 2013; Levasseur et al., 2013). A review about brown algal cell walls and fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides: cell wall context, biomedical properties and key research challenges. Imagine if an oak lassoed you as you ran past. Microbiol., 10 July 2018 “Industrial enzymes: xylanases,” in Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Production, Isolation and Purification of Industrial Products, eds A. Pandey, S. Negi, and C. R. Soccol (New York, NY: Elsevier), 127–148. Biotechnol. The degrading activities toward β-1,6-bonds remain poorly known and are found in GH5, -13, -30 of marine origins, and in a new GH131 family of fungal proteins (Supplementary Table 2b). Most are obligate to the marine environment Facultative marine fungi Freshwater or terrestrial species that can grow and possibly reproduce in the sea Found on wood, sediments, algae, fallen leaves of mangroves, seagrasses, corals, mollusks, and other living marine life Found in all latitudes and throughout all depths Biochemistry 78, 746–759. This suggests that the marine strain S. brevicaulis LF580 may be able to degrade a larger variety of plant substrates than some terrestrial lignocellulolytic fungi (Kumar et al., 2015). Curr. Biochem. 1A) and a few basidio-mycetes. Licensed under the CC 4.0 International license. Filamentous fungi possess the metabolic capacity to degrade environment organic matter, much of which is the plant and algae material enriched with the cell wall carbohydrates and polyphenol complexes that frequently can be assimilated by only marine fungi. 56, 247–264. 44, 431–437. Raghukumar, C., Mohandass, C., Kamat, C., and Shailaja, M. S. (2004b). Isolation, characterization and transcriptome analysis of a novel Antarctic Aspergillus sydowii strain MS-19 as apotential lignocellulosic enzyme source. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2006.03.004, Ochoa-Villarreal, M., Aispuro-Hernández, E., Vargas-Arispuro, I., and Martínez-Téllez, M. Á (2012). As the most renewable energy feedstock on the Earth, the plant or algae polymeric substrates induce an expression of microbial extracellular enzymes that catalyze their cleaving up to the component sugars. Seaweed polysaccharides and derived oligosaccharides stimulate defense responses and protection against pathogens in plants. 71, 220–228. Brown seaweeds were reported to contain about 14% of extra carbohydrates in the form of alginate associated with phenolic compounds (Synytsya et al., 2015; Deniaud-Bouet et al., 2017; Raimundo et al., 2017). 12, 1–4. In general, marine fungi are classified as either obligate or facultative. Technol. However, some low-molecular intermediate substrates (redox mediators) allow laccases indirectly oxidize large molecules with a high redox potential, including non-phenolic lignin. Int. Novel cold-adaptive Penicillium strain FS010 secreting thermo-labile xylanase isolated from Yellow Sea. J. Biol. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04563.x, Balabanova, L. A., Bakunina, I. Y., Slepchenko, L. V., Kirichuk, N. N., Khudyakova, Y. V., Son, O. M., et al. Xylanases are used concurrently with cellulases and pectinases for clarifying juices, the liquefaction of vegetables and fruits as well as in the pretreatment of forage crops to improve the digestibility of ruminant feeds and to facilitate composting (Nadu et al., 2011; Goddard-Borger et al., 2012). doi: 10.1074/jbc.M405867200, Chamorro, S., Viveros, A., Alvarez, I., Vega, E., and Brenes, A. Amylases classified as α-1,4- and 1,6-glucanases randomly hydrolyze starch, a storage polysaccharide, to give diverse products such as dextrins and smaller polymers. There is a special symbiotic class called the lichens that consist of fungi hosting algae inside that convert sunlight to energy (through photosynthesis). Both fungi appeared to be appropriately labeled “marine,” judging by criteria currently in general use. Where I learned about marine fungi, and you can too! “Microbial biodegradation potential of hydrocarbons evaluated by colorimetric technique: a case study,” in Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, ed. Am. [6,7]. J63. doi: 10.5772/51572, Kuhad, R. C., Deswal, D., Sharma, S., Bhattacharya, A., Jain, K. K., Kaur, A., et al. Not that we should continue business-as-usual, hoping that fungi will save us on this front. Ligninolytic enzymes play a crucial role in carbon recycling. Microbiol. Polymerization 63–86. Pectin a heteropolysaccharide composed of α-1,4-linked galacturonate chains with a high percentage of methyl esterification is found in the middle lamella of the plant cell wall and important for controlling growth, wall porosity, and regulation of the ionic environment in plant cells (Eder and Lütz-Meindl, 2008). Originally appearing in “Diversity and potential antifungal properties of fungi associated with a Mediterranean sponge” (Fungal Diversity) by Paz, Z., Komon-Zelazowska, M., Druzhinina, I.S. In the same way, low molecular weight carbohydrates produced during destruction of polymers could induce the expression of other CAZyme genes (Coradetti et al., 2012; Hori et al., 2013; Mukherjee et al., 2016). Marine-derived fungi: diversity of enzymes and biotechnological applications. NCi6, increasing the number of the secreted GHs that were more diverse (nine vs. six families), and more enriched in cellulolytic AA9 (formerly GH61) and xylanolytic GH43, GH10, and GH30 than in conditions without salt (Arfi et al., 2013). Bot. Cellulose has a linear structure of β-1,4-linked D-glucose residues. Bioinformation 11, 176–181. fungi that wil only grow and sporulate in marine settings . Halo-tolerance of marine-derived fungi and their enzymatic properties. BioRes. Although the data on marine fungi with the sequenced genomes are restricted, they carry sufficient information about the common ancestral forms of life with terrestrial fungi such as the capability of utilizing plant polysaccharide complexes for their growth (Arfi et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2015). doi: 10.1073/pnas.1200785109, Cunha, L., and Grenha, A. Family 6 carbohydrate binding modules recognize the non-reducing end of beta-1,3-linked glucans by presenting a unique ligand binding surface. β-Xylosidases are grouped into the GH families 3, 8, 30, 39, 43, 52, 54, 116, 120, but the known GHs of fungal origin are limited to families 3 and 43 (Ochoa-Villarreal et al., 2012; Rytioja et al., 2014; Kirikyali and Connerton, 2015; Berlemont, 2017; Thomas et al., 2017). 99, 1011–1020. Thus, only two thermostable (50–60°C) fucoidanases from marine fungi Dendryphiella arenaria TM94 and Fusarium sp. Polysaccharide-degrading activity in marine and terrestrial strains of mycelial fungi. From the green alga Ulva sp., the endophytic and obligate marine fungus Ascochyta salicorniae was isolated. Sustain. doi: 10.1038/nprot.2009.233, Kohout, P., Sýkorová, Z., Ctvrtlíková, M., Rydlová, J., Suda, J., Vohník, M., et al. Twenty-four GH3, 13 GH5, 11 GH13, 12 GH16, 4 GH17, 5 GH55 that can relate to β-1,3;1,6-glucanase activity have been found in the marine S. brevicaulis LF580 grown at the highest rate on laminarin as the sole source of carbon (Supplementary Tables 1, 2). J. Microbiol. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. 60, 7702–7709. The isolates of A. niger, Penicillium documbens and Cochliobolus lunatus collected from Pensacola beach (Gulf of Mexico) had the ability to degrade crude oil in the presence of redox indicator, decreasing the hydrocarbon weight approximately by up to 10 % during 7 days (Al-Nasrawi, 2012). doi: 10.1007/s10126-009-9187-0, Eder, M., and Lütz-Meindl, U. L. (2008). OH vi) Current status of marine myeochemisny Overall, research on marine-derived fungi has led to the discovery of more than 1000 new natural products including many that have novel carbon … Many discoveries are expected in the coming years from this yet poorly explored group of microorganisms, particularly about their enzymes specific toward the marine substrates. Braz. 10, 1485–1499. J. Biol. The first results in the study of antimicrobial activity of facultative and obligatory marine fungi of the Black Sea, as well as the ability of fungi to luminescence, are … “Fungal treatment of crop processing wastewaters with value-added co-products,” in Sustainable Bioenergy and Bioproducts, eds K. Gopalakrishnan, J. H. van Leeuwen, and R. C. Brown (London: Springer-Verlag), 13–14. CBMAI 1328 and Arthopyrenia sp. mates included only obligate marine fungi as defined by. Eukaryota, Organisms with Nucleated Cells. The polyphenolic compounds involved in a defensive function have been found to be extremely abundant in the seagrass, P. oceanica, mainly in rhizomes and leaves (Panno et al., 2013). If anything, fungi are an important consumer of plant and animal residues as well as chemical pollutions of the marine environments (Harms et al., 2011; Richards et al., 2012). 108, 1668–1675. The Paleozoic origin of enzymatic lignin decomposition reconstructed from 31 fungal genomes. doi: 10.1016/j.margen.2017.09.007, Richards, T. A., Jones, M. D. M., Leonard, G., and Bass, D. (2012). PLoS One 7:e49679. Expansion of the enzymatic repertoire of the CAZy database to integrate auxiliary redox enzymes. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-7270.2006.00135.x, Jiao, G., Yu, G., Zhang, J., and Ewart, H. S. (2011). doi: 10.1007/s12010-010-8992-2, Rytioja, J., Hildén, K., Yuzon, J., Hatakka, A., de Vries, R. P., and Mäkelä, M. R. (2014). Marine fungi have been classified as either obli-gate or facultative: obligate marine fungi grow exclu-sively in a marine habitat, whereas facultative marine fungi are of freshwater or terrestrial origin but are able to thrive in marine … (2014). doi: 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.03.034, Kraan, S. (2012). Facultative forms are originally sourced from terrestrial or fresh water region but they are able to colonize and adopt with the marine habitat and the obligate are extensively live in marine ecosystem (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, … Genome Announc. All Rights Reserved. Additionally, the new natural product ascosalipyrone (3) and the known metabolites 4 and 5 were … 9, 48–54. Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. Improved isolation of glucuronan from algae and the production of glucuronic acid oligosaccharides using a glucuronan lyase. It is known that at least 35 GH, 3 CE and 6 PL families are involved in plant polysaccharide degradation (van den Brink and de Vries, 2011). Familiar examples of ascomycetes include morels, truffles, brewer's and baker’s yeast, Dead Man's Fingers, and cup fungi. KF525 could additionally produce biomass from the sulfated galactans, agar and carrageenan (Supplementary Table 1). Cleaving β-1,3-linkage by these GHs might occur in concert with auxiliary domains for their action against recalcitrant substrates (Guillén et al., 2010). 282:20152243. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2243, Rodrigues, D., Freitas, A. C., Pereira, L., Rocha-Santos, T. A. P., Vasconcelos, M. W., Roriz, M., et al. Fungi are important decomposers in the marine realm, particularly because of their ability to decay wood (and also slurp up dead whales and other rotting animals). Screening marine-derived endophytic fungi for xylan-degrading enzymes. “The macroalgal ecosystem,” in Fungi in Coastal and Oceanic Marine Ecosystems. (2015). FEMS Microbiol. We should still reduce plastic pollution and prevent future oil spills. (1979) stated that marine fungi can be categorized into two groups, namely the obligate marine fungi which are able to grow and sporulate exclusively in marine and estuarine habitat; and facultative marine fungi which originated from freshwater and terrestrial habitats but are able to grow and possibly sporulate in marine environment. Polar Res. J63 with agricultural residues and inducers. However, all 144 studied fungal isolates (except Fusarium sp.) Alsheikh-Hussain, A., Altenaiji, E. M., and Yousef, L. F. (2014). 164, 612–628. A., de Souza Queiroz, A. F., Cruz, M. J. M., et al. By contrast, obligate marine fungi originate from … doi: 10.1016/j.fgb.2014.05.006, Konno, N., Ishida, T., Igarashi, K., Fushinobu, S., Habu, N., Samejima, M., et al. While it’s tempting to dismiss those samples as inactive flotsam, gene expression evidence suggests that at least some fungi are actually amphibious. The activities of marine fungi cultured in non-marine media were comparable to the reported values of the terrestrial wood-decaying fungi (Hong et al., 2015). Other marine species are saprophytic, obtaining their nutrition from decaying matter, such as dead wood and animals. 21, 1182–1189. (2016). LS drew Figure 1 and assisted in the preparation of Supplementary Table 1. doi: 10.1590/S1517-838246220140359, Del-Cid, A., Ubilla, P., Ravanal, M. C., Medina, E., Vaca, I., Levicán, G., et al.
2020 obligate marine fungi